Founder: Sage Kapila • Dualistic Realism & 24 Cosmic Tattvas

The oldest philosophical system of India, expounded by Sage Kapila. It analyzes reality into 25 principles (Tattvas): Purusha (Consciousness) and Prakriti (Nature) with its 3 Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas), Mahat (Cosmic Intellect), Ahamkara (Ego), Manas (Mind), 5 Jnanendriyas, 5 Karmendriyas, 5 Tanmatras, and 5 Mahabhutas. Liberation (Kaivalya) is attained when Purusha realizes its complete transcendence from material nature.

Founder: Sage Patanjali • Systematic Meditation & Psychological Mastery

Defines yoga as "Yogas Chitta Vritti Nirodhah" (the cessation of the modifications of the mind-stuff). Outlines the classical Eight Limbs (Ashtanga Yoga): Yama (moral restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (steady posture), Pranayama (breath regulation), Pratyahara (sensory withdrawal), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption). Leads the seeker from sensory distraction to unshakeable Self-realization.

Founder: Sage Gautama (Akshapada) • Epistemology, Formal Logic & Systematic Debate

The rigorous fountainhead of Indian logic, dialectics, and scientific investigation. It asserts that suffering arises from misconception (Mithyajñana), which triggers attachment, action, and rebirth. By mastering the 16 dialectical subjects and uncovering valid knowledge of the soul, body, senses, and liberation, human beings attain Apavarga (supreme freedom).

Founder: Sage Kanada (Uluka) • Atomic Metaphysics & Objective Reality

Pioneered the atomic theory of the physical cosmos millennia before modern physics. Postulates that all material reality is composed of eternal, indivisible, infinitesimal atoms (Paramanus) animated by the unseen spiritual force (Adrishta) under divine will. Liberation is attained through discerning the fundamental particularity (Vishesha) and true nature of reality.

Founder: Sage Jaimini (Disciple of Veda Vyasa) • Vedic Hermeneutics, Dharma & Sacred Action

Focuses on the Karma Kanda (action and ritual portion) of the Vedas. It asserts that Dharma is the highest duty, revealed exclusively through the eternal, beginningless sound of Vedic revelation. It established sophisticated rules of linguistic interpretation, sentence construction, and context analysis that remain foundational to Indian jurisprudence and Sanskrit scholarship.

Founder: Sage Badarayana (Veda Vyasa) / Adi Shankara / Ramanuja / Madhva • Supreme Absolute Reality (Brahman), Soul (Atman) & Non-Duality

The crowning jewel of Vedic philosophy. It explores the Jnana Kanda of the Upanishads. Encompasses the profound traditions of Advaita (Non-dualism of Adi Shankara: "Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya Jivo Brahmaiva Naparah"), Vishishtadvaita (Qualified non-dualism of Ramanujacharya), and Dvaita (Dualism of Madhvacharya). Proclaims that the individual soul is in essence divine, and true liberation is the experiential realization of oneness with Brahman.